View source for Japanese kamikaze attacks

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#REDIRECT [[Kamikaze attacks (World War II)]]

{{short description|Desperate tactic employed by Japan during the late stages of World War II}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|war = World War II
|image = Kamikaze pilot preparing for a mission.jpg
|image_size = 300px
|caption = A Japanese kamikaze pilot preparing for a suicide mission during the Battle of Okinawa.
|partof = The Pacific War
|date = October 1944 – August 1945
|place = Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Okinawa, and other locations
|result = Allied victory; Japanese strategic failure
|combatant1 = [[Empire of Japan]]
|combatant2 = [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Netherlands]], [[Canada]], and others
|commander1 = Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi
|commander2 = Chester Nimitz, William Halsey, and others
|strength1 = Hundreds of aircraft and pilots
|strength2 = Vastly superior Allied air and naval forces
|casualties1 = Approximately 3,800 pilots and crew killed
|casualties2 = Approximately 1,300 Allied sailors and 128 ships damaged or sunk
}}

'''Japanese Kamikaze Attacks''' (神風, *kamikaze*, "divine wind") were suicide attacks by military aviators from the [[Empire of Japan]] against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of [[World War II]]. These attacks, beginning in October 1944, were a desperate attempt to halt the Allied advance towards Japan, particularly during the battles of [[Leyte Gulf]], [[Iwo Jima]], and [[Okinawa]].  The tactic involved loading aircraft with explosives – often bombs, torpedoes, or fuel – and deliberately crashing them into enemy ships.

== Historical Context and Origins ==

The concept of self-sacrifice for the emperor and nation was deeply ingrained in Japanese culture, influenced by [[Bushido]], the samurai code of conduct.  Bushido emphasized loyalty, honor, and a willingness to die for one's lord.  However, the direct application of this ethos to modern warfare, specifically as a deliberate tactic of suicide attacks, was a relatively late development during the war.

Early in the Pacific War, Japan enjoyed significant military successes due to its highly trained pilots and advanced aircraft. However, as the war progressed, Japan began to suffer heavy losses in both personnel and equipment.  The U.S. rapidly increased aircraft production and pilot training, overwhelming Japan's capabilities.  By 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was facing a critical shortage of experienced pilots.  Replacing lost pilots with adequately trained replacements became increasingly difficult.  

The turning point came after the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 1944), where the IJN lost a significant number of experienced pilots and aircraft.  Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, commander of the First Air Fleet, proposed the *Tokubetsu Kōgekitai* (Special Attack Corps), units dedicated to ramming attacks.  The initial concept wasn't necessarily suicide, but rather a determined effort to damage or sink enemy ships even at the cost of the pilot's life.  The term "kamikaze" was adopted later, invoking the imagery of the two typhoons in 1274 and 1281 that famously destroyed the Mongol fleets attempting to invade Japan – a divine wind saving the nation. [[Battle of Dan-no-ura]] serves as a precursory example of a similar nationalistic fervor.

== Development of the Kamikaze Strategy ==

Ōnishi's initial proposal faced resistance from some within the IJN, who considered it a wasteful and dishonorable tactic.  However, the desperate situation and the lack of viable alternatives led to its approval. The first organized kamikaze attacks occurred during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944.  

The initial attacks were relatively uncoordinated and involved pilots simply attempting to crash their aircraft into enemy ships.  Over time, the tactics became more refined.  Pilots were trained to approach enemy vessels at low altitude and a high speed, aiming for the flight deck or superstructure to maximize damage.  Different types of aircraft were used, including Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, Yokosuka D4Y Suisei dive bombers, and Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate fighters.  Some aircraft were modified to carry larger payloads of explosives.

The training for kamikaze pilots was intense, focusing on both flying skills and ideological indoctrination.  Pilots were taught to embrace death as a glorious sacrifice for the emperor and the nation.  They were often given only minimal flight training, as the emphasis was on unwavering commitment rather than technical proficiency.  This meant many pilots were relatively inexperienced when launched on their missions. [[Japanese military academies]] played a crucial role in this indoctrination.

== Tactics and Aircraft ==

Kamikaze attacks weren't limited to aircraft.  There were also instances of *Shinyo* suicide boats, packed with explosives, and *Kaiten* manned torpedoes used in attempts to sink Allied warships. However, aircraft were the primary means of delivering kamikaze attacks.

*   **Aircraft Types:**
    *   **Mitsubishi A6M Zero:** The most common kamikaze aircraft due to its availability, though increasingly vulnerable to Allied fighters.  Its long range was also an advantage.
    *   **Yokosuka D4Y Suisei:** A dive bomber often used with a 500 kg bomb attached.
    *   **Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate:** A more powerful and faster fighter, often used in later stages of the war.
    *   **Mitsubishi J2M Raiden:** A long-range fighter occasionally used, but limited in numbers.
*   **Attack Profiles:**
    *   **Direct Impact:** The most common method, aiming for the flight deck, bridge, or other vital areas of a ship.
    *   **Near Miss:**  Pilots sometimes attempted to crash near a ship, hoping the explosion would cause sufficient damage.
    *   **Low-Altitude Approach:**  Approaching at low altitude reduced the chance of being intercepted by Allied fighters, but increased the risk of being shot down by anti-aircraft fire.
    *   **High-Altitude Approach:** Approaching from higher altitudes allowed for a longer range of visibility, but made the aircraft more vulnerable to interception.
*   **Payloads:** Aircraft typically carried a 250 kg bomb, a 500 kg bomb or a torpedo. Later in the war, some planes were simply filled with fuel.  [[Explosives handling]] was a key concern.

== Battles and Impact ==

Kamikaze attacks were employed extensively during several key battles in the Pacific War:

*   **Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944):** The first large-scale use of kamikaze tactics.  While they didn't sink any major warships during this battle, they caused significant damage and disrupted Allied operations. The attacks demonstrated the desperation of the Japanese and the willingness to employ unconventional tactics. [[Naval warfare in the Pacific]] was fundamentally altered.
*   **Battle of Iwo Jima (February-March 1945):** Kamikaze attacks were heavily used against the Allied invasion fleet.  They inflicted considerable damage, but failed to prevent the capture of the island.  The intense kamikaze activity highlighted the effectiveness of Allied anti-aircraft defenses.
*   **Battle of Okinawa (April-June 1945):** The most intense period of kamikaze attacks.  Over 1,400 kamikaze aircraft attacked Allied ships during the battle, sinking dozens of vessels and inflicting heavy casualties.  However, the Allied forces were able to withstand the attacks and secure the island.  [[Amphibious warfare]] saw significant challenges due to this tactic.
*   **Attacks on Allied Ships off Kyushu (March-August 1945):**  Kamikaze attacks continued even after the fall of Okinawa, targeting Allied ships operating off the coast of Kyushu in preparation for a potential invasion of Japan.

The impact of kamikaze attacks was significant, but ultimately limited.  While they caused substantial damage to Allied ships and inflicted heavy casualties, they failed to achieve their strategic objective of halting the Allied advance.  The attacks did, however, prolong the war and increased the overall cost in terms of lives and resources.  [[Logistics in World War II]] were heavily disrupted.

== Allied Responses and Countermeasures ==

The Allies responded to the kamikaze threat with a variety of countermeasures:

*   **Combat Air Patrol (CAP):**  Establishing continuous patrols of Allied fighter aircraft to intercept kamikaze aircraft before they could reach Allied ships. This proved to be the most effective countermeasure. [[Air superiority]] became a critical objective.
*   **Anti-Aircraft Fire:**  Intensive anti-aircraft fire from ships and aircraft to shoot down approaching kamikaze aircraft.  Improvements in radar technology and fire control systems increased the accuracy and effectiveness of anti-aircraft guns. [[Radar technology]] played a vital role.
*   **Radar Detection:** Early warning radar systems were used to detect incoming kamikaze aircraft, providing valuable time for ships to prepare and deploy defensive measures.
*   **Damage Control:** Improved damage control procedures were implemented on Allied ships to minimize the impact of kamikaze hits.  This included fire suppression systems, watertight compartments, and well-trained damage control teams.
*   **Electronic Warfare:**  Jamming equipment was used to disrupt the communication and navigation systems of kamikaze aircraft. [[Electronic countermeasures]] were increasingly deployed.
*   **Defensive Fire:** Ships began employing continuous defensive fire, even without radar contact, to create a "wall of lead" that would deter or destroy approaching aircraft.

== Psychological Impact and Ethical Considerations ==

The kamikaze attacks had a profound psychological impact on both sides of the conflict.  For the Allied sailors, the attacks were terrifying and demoralizing.  The constant threat of a suicidal aircraft crashing into their ship created a climate of fear and anxiety.  The attacks also raised questions about the nature of warfare and the willingness of the Japanese to sacrifice their own people. [[Psychological warfare]] was a key element.

The ethical implications of kamikaze attacks were also widely debated.  Critics argued that the tactic was a barbaric and inhumane form of warfare, as it involved deliberately sacrificing the lives of young pilots.  Supporters argued that the attacks were a legitimate response to the Allied invasion and a demonstration of the Japanese willingness to defend their homeland.  The attacks raised questions about the limits of warfare and the moral responsibilities of combatants.  [[Military ethics]] were challenged.

== Legacy and Modern Relevance ==

The kamikaze attacks remain a controversial and tragic episode in military history.  They serve as a stark reminder of the desperation and brutality of war, and the lengths to which nations will go to defend their interests.  The attacks also raise important questions about the nature of sacrifice, honor, and the ethics of warfare.

The concept of using suicide attacks as a military tactic has resurfaced in modern times, employed by terrorist organizations such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS.  Understanding the historical context and psychological factors that motivated the kamikaze attacks can provide valuable insights into the motivations and strategies of modern-day suicide terrorists. [[Terrorism studies]] draw parallels.

The kamikaze attacks also highlight the importance of adapting to changing battlefield conditions and developing effective countermeasures to new threats.  The Allied response to the kamikaze attacks demonstrated the importance of technological innovation, tactical flexibility, and effective damage control.  [[Military innovation]] is a constant requirement. The study of the attacks informs modern [[threat assessment]] and [[risk management]] strategies. Analyzing the success rate of the attacks and the effectiveness of Allied countermeasures provides valuable data for [[operational analysis]]. The attacks also underscore the importance of understanding the cultural and ideological factors that influence enemy behavior in [[intelligence gathering]].  Furthermore, the kamikaze attacks provide a case study for the development of more effective [[air defense systems]] and [[ship protection technologies]].  The impact on [[maritime strategy]] remains relevant today.



[[List of Japanese Kamikaze Pilots]]
[[Operation Ketsu-Go]]
[[Naval history of World War II]]
[[Japanese aircraft]]
[[United States Navy in World War II]]
[[Imperial Japanese Navy]]
[[Battle of the Coral Sea]]
[[Battle of Midway]]
[[Battle of Guadalcanal]]
[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]


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[[Category:Kamikaze]]